Decision Making Model Essay - 949 Words

Decision-Making Model essay Whether we realize it or not, decision-making is a part of our daily lives. Everyday we have to make decisions. Some of those decisions are minor and some of them are life changing. Some of the decision we make, sometimes, are pretty obvious. We decide to get up, get of bed, with the assumption that the floor will be there. Personally, I begin to think of what I need to accomplish that day and what would happen if I did not tend to certain things. These thoughts make me uncomfortable when I find no alternative course of action other than getting up and doing what needs to be done. In the end, I get up, get dressed and begin to tend to the things I consider important. By this time, I have already engaged in†¦show more content†¦My husband, being the C.E.O., and I, being the president, decided to take everything in and look over all the different ideas that were given to us. We had to look at each idea and present a scenario for each idea and, in th is manner, we narrowed it down to a few ideas that would be suitable to fit our situation. This is when the third step came in. We had to choose the best solution, and we did. We decided that the best way to increase out listenership was to market our station to more people. We, then, executed the fourth step, which is implementing the solution. We contacted different media sources and decided to make ourselves more visible. Everyone worked hard at getting our radio station in different playlists and different websites. We then were entering the fifth step: evaluation the success of the chosen solution. This process was the longest and made us very nervous. How would we know that all our efforts would pay off? Only time and numbers could tell now. We watched the stations numbers daily. We made comparison charts and decided after six months that it was time for a meeting. At the meeting, we assessed the results that we had in front of us and one of the final steps of rationalization was in place; it was time to modify the decision. Looking at numbers and problem areas, we narrowed down our solutions even more and decided toShow MoreRelated Decision-Making Models Essay982 Words   |  4 PagesDecision-Making Models Negotiations and decisions are a part of everyday business. In order to make a successful decision, it is necessary to understand how to make rational and sound decisions. Decisions that are rash, made on snap judgments, and past experiences can prove detrimental to a business. A deficit in basic thinking and decision making is felt at all levels of an organization (Gary, 1997). Decisions can have long term and short term impacts on organizations and their world in whichRead More Decision-Making Models Essay798 Words   |  4 PagesDecision-Making Models   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are several decision-making models to choose from in any given situation. Some of these models available on the Internet are the Responsible Decision-Making Model, the Ethical Decision-Making Model, the Ethics Toolkit PLUS Model, the Vigilant Decision-Maker Process, and some basic ones as well. In general, all decision-making models are the processes we use to make well-thought out decisions. There are three major elements of all decision-making models. TheseRead More Decision-Making Model Essay1309 Words   |  6 Pages Decision-Making Model Analysis Paper nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Throughout this paper, the values of the Six Thinking Hats will be discussed and the meanings behind the Six Hats. Six Thinking Hats’ is â€Å"used to look at decisions from a number of important perspectives. This forces you to move outside your habitual thinking style, and helps you to get a more rounded view of a situation (de Bono, 1985)†. There are five values behind the Six Thinking Hats. They are role-playing, attention directionRead More Decision-Making Models Essay959 Words   |  4 PagesDecision-Making Models General assumptions create the foundation of a persons reasoning. Imperfections with a supposition can create the opportunity for a skewed perspective in a persons reasoning process (Paul Elder, 2002). The process of choosing one course of action over another is commonly known as decision making. Consciously or unconsciously, people make decisions on a daily basis founded on one or more of the various decision-making models (Sullivan, n.d.). This paper examines how IRead More Decision Making Model Essay854 Words   |  4 PagesDecision Making Model Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Decision making models can be very effective in problem solving. Scheduling is a big problem at Direct HomeHealth Care and a solution needed to be found. Scheduling software which can be very expensive was the only conclusion that could be reached. With much thought and analysis a resolution was reached with critical thought and a decision making model from the Small Business Development Center. Decision making models can be very helpful in analyzingRead MoreDecision-Making Model Analysis: 7-Step Decision-Making Model Essay1619 Words   |  7 PagesDecision-Making Model Analysis: 7-Step Decision-Making Process Decision making is defined as the cognitive process leading to the selection of a course of action among alternatives (Decision Making, 2006, para. 1). Decisions are made continually throughout our day. For the most part, our decision-making processes are either sub-conscious or made fairly quickly due to the nature of the decision before us. Most of us dont spend much time deciding what to have for lunch, what to wear, or whatRead MoreEssay on Decision-Making Model Analysis878 Words   |  4 PagesDecision-Making Model Analysis When one is thinking, he or she must think critically. Thinking critically means to think intelligently and thoroughly about the decision to be made. One must gather his or her thoughts with clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, consistency, completeness, and/or fairness. With those particulars in mind during the thought process; an accurate answer and/or the most excellent decision will undoubtedly be made. The purpose of this paper is to find a decision-makingRead More Rational Decision Making Model Essay1605 Words   |  7 PagesRational Decision Making Model Abstract What is a decision? The word decision can be defined as, â€Å"the act of reaching a conclusion or making up ones mind† (American Heritage, 2000). Essentially, a decision is a choice that an individual or a group of people makes. A decision can be a single action, an entire process, or even just a single spoken word or gesture. Decision-making is one of the defining characteristics of leadership. Making decisions is what managers and leaders are paid toRead MoreDecision Making Models Essay example483 Words   |  2 Pages Rational Decision-Making Model Most individuals are faced with situations that necessitate excellent decision-making abilities. Determining the suitable course of action to take when faced with a difficult dilemma can be a challenge. Due to the importance of the decision-making process, decision-making models can be used to establish a systematic means of developing effective decision making. One of the models has been called the quot;rational modelquot; of decision making (Stoner amp; FreemanRead More Decision-Making Model Analysis Essay example804 Words   |  4 PagesDecision-Making Model Analysis Decisions! Decisions! Decisions! How do you make decisions? Have you ever asked yourself, â€Å"How did I make that decision?† Whether big or small, important or not so important, decision making is a process. Some people way the pros and cons while others may just flip a coin. Are decisions based on feelings, outcomes or information? Often times if we just go with our gut feeling will be miss out on important information that should be included in our decision.

Substance Abuse And Its Effects On Society - 1285 Words

Substance abuse has existed since the start of civilization and it is an ever present entity in the modern era as well. Distilled beverages were the main drinking source in many cases even safer to drink than water in early civilizations, for instance during the Middle Ages. Many substances were also used in medicine derived from certain plants for anesthetics such as opioids from poppy seeds. In addition, nicotine and tobacco products and other hallucinogenic substances were used for recreational and relaxation purposes. Whereas perhaps hundreds of years ago the use of many of these substances was considered widely acceptable and the norm, modern science and medicine has uncovered the harmful effects that these drugs can cause when they are abused and can lead to addiction and dangerous behaviors in society. In the United States, the first of the many laws to regulate and control addictive drugs was the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906, which required the correct labeling of medicine s that contained opiates. In 1914 the Harrison Narcotic Act banned the sale of medicines that contained opiates or cocaine and required a prescription by physicians (Brown, 1981).Then, in 1919 â€Å"spirit of temperance†, or self-control, led to the Prohibition of alcohol by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which was then revoked 14 years later (Infoplease.com, Drug addiction and Drug abuse). As the 20th century passed, there was more awareness and more studies about drug abuse andShow MoreRelatedSubstance Abuse And Its Effects On Society Essay1579 Words   |  7 Pageskiller, substance abuse. Substance abuse affects the user and everyone that they are around and most of the time the user doesn’t even realize nor care that it affects other people because they are consumed by the substances. These substances have the power to dramatically change people’s lives, such as the physical toll it takes on our body, the ways in which it corrupts our metal process, and the detrimental effects it has on our social lives. Most substances that are used in our society, are usedRead MoreEffects Of Parental Addiction On Children1457 Words   |  6 Pages THE EFFECTS PARENTAL ADDICTIONS HAVE ON CHILDREN Alexis Holcomb The cost of alcohol and substance abuse in the United States reaches heights of four hundred eighty four billion dollars per year (â€Å"Magnitude†). That’s about seven hundred eighty times the amount it cost to diagnose and treat sexually transmitted diseases in the year 2000 (Chesson). The sole purpose of this is not to persuade you one way or the other on this topic. Nor is the purpose to apologize for this social issueRead MoreSubstance Abuse : A Social Problem1608 Words   |  7 Pages we must also take substance abuse into consideration because it is all too often neglected. According to the World Health Organization, substance abuse â€Å"refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs† (Substance). Individuals who become victims of substance abuse become dependent on and overindulge in substances such as drugs and alcohol. The outside forces in our world today influence behaviors including substance abuse, ultimately displayingRead MoreThe Psychological Effects Of Adolescent Substance Abuse1469 Words   |  6 PagesAdolescent substance abuse is one of the largest issues faced by our society today. According to Teenrehab.com, nearly 50% of all high school seniors have abused some form of illicit substance and according to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism nearly 70% of 18 year olds have at the least tried alcohol. Many more adolescents are trying, and getting addicted to, drugs every year. In my opinion this is one of the most critical issues that we have to address as a society. Summary Response:Read MoreThe Effects Of Drugs On The Human Body1158 Words   |  5 Pagessince it became a nation. The abuse of substances has become more and more common on this society, that now thinking about legalizing one of its illicit drugs is a main political topic. Even though the United States has become a war on drugs country, many people in its society are still being affected. Out of all the substances that are being abuse in this country, there are three that outstand the rest. The three substances that are being abuse the most in our society are alcohol, marijuana, and methamphetamineRead MoreDetrimental Social Problems: Substance Abuse Essays1197 Words   |  5 PagesSubstance abuse is one of the most detrimental social problems found in all societies. It has been the leading cause for generational breakdowns of families and communities, and is probably the most controversial social problem when developing corrective solutions. Substance abuse can be defined as the chemical dependence, or pattern of usage of both legal and illegal substances, that has adverse physical, psychological, and psychomotor effects on the human body. The use of substances does not alwaysRead MoreModels in the Substance Abuse Field 1206 Words   |  5 PagesThe term substance refers to all psycho active substances –â€Å"any substances when taken by a living organism may modify its mood perception, cognition deportment or motor function,† (DSM-IV, 4th edition) whether it is legal or illegal. Substance abuse refers to the utilization of a drug or other substances for non-medical purposes with the aim of engendering a mind-altering effect in the utilizer (MOH, 2005). It involves the utilization of illegal substances such as cannabis, misuse of licit drugsRead MoreThe Effects Of Substance Use On The Social Institutions And Effective Mechanisms Of Dealing With The Drug Offenders1230 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Drug abuse is continuous use of substances like alcohol in quantities or with ways unacceptable by medical experts mostly for purposes of altering normal body functioning. It is majorly a health concern, but in the recent decades, it has risen to become one of the worst ills in the society (Haw Hawton, 2011). There are various laws that prohibit use certain drug types especially those often abused. Most judicial systems protect their citizens from drug abuse and related issues. ThereRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol And Drug Abuse On Criminal Activities1620 Words   |  7 Pagestheorists have differing views on whether or not alcohol and drug abuse is related to criminal activities, there are however a variety of preventative and intervention methods known commonly as ‘harm reduction’. This theory aims to assist in society’s responses in how we intervene when it comes to drug abusers as well as how the use of drug taking harms society itself. Such designed strat egies aim to reduce and eventually stop substance abuse. Harm reduction methods can come in the form of interventionRead MoreDrug Abuse And Addiction1261 Words   |  6 PagesDrug Abuse and Addiction Individuals are well on the way to begin drug abuse including alcohol, tobacco, marijuana and many more drugs which are illegal. It has been seen that most affected category falls under the effect of drug abuse is adolescence and young adulthood. The percentage of senior students during their high school, who will have tried alcohol is 70 percent in the ratio and 40 percent of them start smoking and nearly 20 percent of them start taking prescription drugs. (National Institute

Education in emerging india free essay sample

Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of others, but may also be autodidactic. [1] Any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. Education is commonly divided into stages such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then college, university or apprenticeship. 2. Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires knowledge, experience, skill and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized, refined, cultured and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education is the only means. Its goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solve the various problems of life. DEFINITIONS Since time immemorial, education is estimated as the right road to progress and prosperity. Different educationists’ thoughts from both Eastern and Western side have explained the term ‘education’ according to the need of the hour. Various educationists have given their views on education. Some important definitions are: 1. Mahatma Gandhi – â€Å"By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in man – body, mind and spirit. † 2. Rabindranath Tagore – â€Å"Education enables the mind to find out the ultimate truth, which gives us the wealth of inner light and love and gives significance to life. † 3. Dr. Zakir Husain – â€Å"Education is the process of the individual mind, getting to its full possible development. Swami Vivekananda – â€Å"Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man. † 5. Aristotle â€Å"Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body. † 6. Rousseau â€Å"Education is the child’s development from within. † 7. Herbert Spencer- â€Å"Education is complete living. † 8. Plato – â€Å"Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. † 9. Aristotle – â€Å"Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. † 10. Pestalozzi – â€Å"Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate powers. † 11. Froebel -â€Å"Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. † 12. T. P. Nunn â€Å"Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child. † 13. John Dewey – â€Å"Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. † 14. Indira Gandhi – â€Å"Education is a liberating force and in our age it is also a democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste and class, smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth and other circumstances. † John Locke said, â€Å"Plants are developed by cultivation and men by education†. This world would have been enveloped in intellectual darkness if it had not been illuminated by the light of education. It is right to say that the story of civilization is the story of education. Thus, education is an integral part of human life. It is the basic condition for a development of a whole man and vital instrument For accelerating the wellbeing and prosperity by the light of education. NATURE OF EDUCATION As is the meaning of education, so is its nature. It is very complex. Let us now discuss the nature of education: 1. Education is a life-long process- Education is a continuous and lifelong process. It starts from the womb of the mother and continues till death. It is the process of development from infancy to maturity. It includes the effect of everything which influences human personality. 2. Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its activities through a systematic institution and regulation. 3. Education is development of individual and the society- It is called a force for social development, which brings improvement in every aspect in the society. 4. Education is modification of behaviour- Human behaviour is modified and improved through educational process. Education is purposive: every individual has some goal in his life. Education contributes in attainment of that goal. There is a definite purpose underlined all educational activities. 6. Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behaviour, activities; skills are trained in a constructive and socially desirable way. 7. Education is instruction and direction- It directs and instructs an individual to fulfill his desires and needs for exaltation of his whole personality. 8. Education is life- Life without education is meaningless and like the life of a beast. Every aspect and incident needs education for its sound development. 9. Education is continuous reconstruction of our experiences- As per the definition of John Dewey education reconstructs and remodels our experiences towards socially desirable way. 10. Education helps in individual adjustment: a man is a social being. If he is not able to adjust himself in different aspects of life his personality can’t remain balanced. Through the medium of education he learns to adjust himself with the friends, class fellows, parents, relations, neighbours and teachers etc. Education is balanced development: Education is concerned with the development of all faculties of the child. it performs the functions of the physical, mental, aesthetic, moral, economic, spiritual development of the individual so that the individual may get rid of his animal instincts by sublimating the same so that he becomes a civilized person. 12. Education is a dynamic process: Education is not a static but a dynamic process which develops the child according to changing situations and times. It always induces the individual towards progress. It reconstructs the society according to the changing needs of the time and place of the society. 13. Education is a bipolar process: According to Adams, education is a bipolar process in which one personality acts on another to modify the development of other person. The process is not only conscious but deliberate. 14. Education is a three dimensional process: John Dewey has rightly remarked, â€Å"All educations proceeds by participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race. † Thus it is the society which will determine the aims, contents and methods of teachings. In this way the process of education consists of 3 poles – the teacher, the child and the society. 15. Education as growth: The end of growth is more growth and the end of education is more education. According to John Dewey, â€Å"an individual is a changing and growing personality. † The purpose of education is to facilitate the process of his/her growth. Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society and man. It is necessary for every society and nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its individuals. AIMS OF EDUCATION Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in view the needs of situation. Human nature is multisided with multiple needs, which are related to life. Educational aims are correlated to ideals of life. The goal of education should be the full flowering of the human on this earth. According to a UNESCO study, â€Å"the physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete man/woman is the fundamental aim of education. † The goal of education is also to form children into human persons committed to work for the creation of human communities of love, fellowship, freedom, justice and harmony. Students are to be moulded only by making them experience the significance of these values in the school itself. Teachers could achieve this only by the lived example of their lives manifested in hundreds of small and big transactions with students in word and deed. Individual and Social Aims: Individual aims and social aims are the most important aims of education. They are opposed to each other individual aims gives importance for the development of the individuality. Social aim gives importance to the development of society through individual not fulfilling his desire. But it will be seen that development of individuality assumes meaning only in a social environment. Individual Aims – Sir Percy Nunn observes, â€Å"Nothing goods enters into the human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and women and that educational practice must be shaped the individual. Education should give scope to develop the inborn potentialities through maximum freedom. † Because: (1) Biologists believe that every individual is different from others. Every child is a new and unique product and a new experiment with life. Thompson says, â€Å"Education is for the individual†. Individual should be the centre of all educational efforts and activities. (2) Naturalists believe that central aim of education is the autonomous development of the individual. Rousseau said, â€Å"Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man. † God makes all things good, man meddles with them and they become evil. God creates everything good man makes it evil. So individual should be given maximum freedom for its own development. (3) Psychologists believe that education is an individual process because of individual differences. No two individuals are alike. So education should be according to the interest of the individual. Criticism of Individual Aim: Individual aim is not desirable because man is a social animal. Society’s interest should be protected. (1) Individual aim makes individual selfish. (2) Maximum freedom may go against the society. (3) Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it develops in a social atmosphere. (4) Unless society develops, individual cannot develop. (5) Who will recognize society- where individual is selfish? Social Aim: The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or real. The individual is only a means. The progress of the society is the aim of education. Education is for the society and of the society. The function of education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the individual as it desires. It prepares the individual to play different roles in society. Individuality has no value, and personality is meaningless apart from society. If society will develop individual will develop automatically. Here society plays an important role. Criticism of Social Aim: (1) It makes individual only a tool of government. It reduces individual to a mere non-entity. (3) Society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and interests of the individual. (4) It is against the development of individuality of the individual. Synthesis between individual and social aims of education: Individual aim and social aim of education go independently. Both are opposing to each other. It is not in reality. Neither the individual nor the society can exist. The individual is the product of the society while society finds its advancement in the development of its individual member. Individual cannot develop in vacuum. According to John Adams, â€Å"Individuality requires a social medium to grow. † And T. P. Nunn says,† Individuality develops in social environment. † Conclusion: According to James Ross, â€Å"The aim of education is the development of valuable personality and spiritual individuality. † The true aim of education cannot be other than the highest development of the individual as a member of society. Let education burn the individual flame, feeding it with the oil of society. ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING OF EDUCATION Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived from different Latin words. Educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to nourish’. b) ‘educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’. c) ‘educatum’ which means ‘act of teaching’ or ‘training’. d) ‘educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, rear, educate’. e) ‘educatio’ which means â€Å"a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing. †  · The Greek word ‘pedagogy’ is sometimes used for education.  · The most common Indian word ‘shiksha’ is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘shas’ which means ‘to discipline’, ‘to control’, ‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’.  · Similarly the word ‘vidya’ is derived from Sanskrit verbal root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Vidya is thus the subject matter of knowledge. This shows that disciplining the mind and imparting knowledge where the foremost considerations in India. Back in the 1500s, the word education meant â€Å"the raising of children,† but it also meant â€Å"the training of animals. † While there are probably a few teachers who feel like animal trainers, education these days has come to mean either â€Å"teaching† or â€Å"the process of acquiring knowledge. † Functions of education The two important questions concerning the role of education in society are: what could education achieve? And does it do that well? The answer to the questions can be given by associating four central functions to education, on an abstract level prevalent in most educational system (Peschar and Wesselingh 1999) 1. The equal opportunity function: to promote equal opportunities to children of different backgrounds. 2. The selection function: to sort students efficiently according to their talents and interest. The selection function implies that efficient learning is achieved when the sorting process is optimized. The total production of knowledge and skill is then optimized. The allocation function: to prepare for the labour market. This function implies that education teaches skills that are productive for work, and thereby helps school leavers in the process of being allocated to different labour market positions, and employers in optimizing their productions. 4. The socialization function: to socialize students and pupils into active citizenship. Education can have an active role in the formation of active and participating citizens, and it can help to promote equality in civic competence. Moulding: The social function of education is to qualify the individual to function in the role he is to play later on in society; that is, to mould his character in such a way that it approximates the social character that his desires coincide with the necessities of his social role. Growth : (ref) Of all the processes involved in acquisition of mental tools, Vygotsky focused primarily on the use of language (it was through the work of his colleagues and students that acquisition of non-verbal mental tools was studied). For him, language is both the most important mental tool and a medium facilitating the acquisition of other mental tools. One of the best-known concepts that illustrates Vygotskys view of language is the concept of private speech. Private speech, or self-talk, originates in social speech, the initial form of speech that is directed to other people. Although it retains the audible characteristic of social speech, private speech changes its function. It now becomes speech directed to oneself rather than speech that is regulated or directed by a more capable person. Noticing that children tend to increase the amount of self-talk when facing more challenging tasks, Vygotsky hypothesized that at some point, they start using private speech to organize (plan, direct, or evaluate) their behaviors. The use of private speech peaks during preschool years and then decreases. Vygotsky associates this decrease with private speech turning first into inner speech and then into verbal thinking. This evolution of speech–from social to self-directed to internalized–exemplifies the path of all higher mental functions, which was described by Vygotsky in his law of the development of higher mental functions. According to this law, each higher mental function appears twice in the course of child development: first as shared or carried out by an individual jointly with other people–intersubjective–and then as appropriated or internalized by this individual and used independently–intrasubjective. Vygotskys view of child development and education is an extension of his general approach to the development of higher mental functions. Consistent with his definition of development as socially determined, Vygotsky introduced a new relationship between education, learning, and development. Vygotsky argued against the theorists who believed that child development occurs spontaneously and is driven by the processes of maturation and cannot be affected by education. Neither did he agree with those who claimed that instruction could alter development at any time regardless of a childs age or capacities. Instead, he proposed a more complex and dynamic relationship between learning and development that is determined by what he termed a childs zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotskys theory is based on the idea that learning can lead development, and development can lead learning, and this process takes place through a dynamic interrelationship. The ZPD is the area between a learners level of independent performance (often called developmental level) and the level of assisted performance–what the child can do with support. Independent performance is the best the learner can do without help, and assisted performance is the maximum the learner can achieve with help. By observing assisted performance one can investigate a learners potential for current highest level of functioning. ZPD reveals the learners potential and is realized in interactions with knowledgeable others or in other supportive contexts (such as make-believe play for preschool children). By providing assistance to learners within their ZPD we are supporting their growth. Through identification of a learners ZPD, teachers find out what knowledge, skills, and understandings have not yet surfaced for the learner but are on the edge of emergence. Teachers also study ways to engage the learner in shared or co-operative learning experience through participation in the learners ZPD. This involves doing more than completing a task in a combined fashion; it involves developing the learners higher mental functions, such as the ability to plan, evaluate, memorize, and reason. In How Children Think and Learn (1998), David Wood points out: By reminding children we are helping them to bring to mind and exploit those aspects of their past experience that we (as experts) but not they (as novices) know to be relevant to what they are currently trying to do (p. Read more: Developmental Theory Vygotskian Theory Vygotsky, Mental, Children, and Child StateUniversity. com http://education. stateuniversity. com/pages/1912/Developmental-Theory-VYGOTSKIAN-THEORY. html#ixzz2t7TbJZuz Initiation Formal, informal and non formal education At around the same time there were moves in UNESCO toward lifelong education and notions of ‘the learning society‘ which culminated in Learning to Be (‘The Faure Report’, UNESCO 1972). Lifelong learning was to be the ‘master concept’ that should shape educational systems (UNESCO 1972:182). What emerged was an influential tripartite categorization of learning systems. It’s best known statement comes from the work of Combs with Prosser and Ahmed (1973): Formal education: the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ‘education system’, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-time technical and professional training. Informal education: the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment – from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media. Non-formal education: any organised educational activity outside the established formal system – whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity – that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. The distinction made is largely administrative. Formal education is linked with schools and training institutions; non-formal with community groups and other organizations; and informal covers what is left, e. g. interactions with friends, family and work colleagues. (See, for example, Coombs and Ahmed 1974). The problem with this is that people often organize educational events as part of their everyday experience and so the lines blur rapidly. As Fordham (1993) comments, these definitions do not imply hard and fast categories. In particular, there may well be some overlap (and confusion) between the informal and the non-formal. Just how helpful a focus on administrative setting or institutional sponsorship is a matter of some debate. Once we recognize that a considerable amount of education happens beyond the school wall it may be that a simple division between formal and informal education will suffice. It has certainly been

Relationship Between Body and Consciousness by Jean

Introduction According to Jean-Paul Sartre, understanding of the body is obscured by many factors. Moreover, its relation to consciousness is masked. In addition, its problems are concealed. He argues that this is attributed to the complexities surrounding consciousness. For instance, the body has laws that govern it.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Relationship Between Body and Consciousness by Jean-Paul Sartre specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, it is observable as matter. Furthermore, the body can be defined from the outside. However, this is not the same as with consciousness. Consciousness is reached by peculiar intuitions, which are inside the body. This complicates its understanding since one has to relate it to the body organs. Sartre claims that after internal intuitions, one can then unite consciousness to the various body organs for action. Therefore, Sartre tries to define the relationshi p between body and consciousness. In addition, he tries to explore the problems of the body. This paper will review Sartre’s theories on the body as well as its relation to consciousness. The Body Jean-Paul argues that consciousness is quite complex to understand. However, he finds it quite easy to cognize the body. Interestingly, once consciousness has been achieved, then its unity to the various body organs such as the nervous system becomes increasingly complex to analyze. However, he argues that the difficulties arise from trying to connect one’s conscience with other people’s bodies. Interestingly, he notes that no one has ever seen or will ever see his/her brain. That is, people look to others for explanation about their bodies. In that sense, he sees one’s body organs as his/her property than as his/her being. Through this, he notes that observable body organs such as the eye, the legs, and the ears, among others can only be seen in a single percep tion, which does not involve itself.Advertising Looking for book review on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In essence, Sartre argues that people see their organs as the other in relation to themselves because they cannot comprehend how they function to communicate sense. Therefore, he claims that people deal with different orders of reality. In this regard, he rejects the notion of double sensation because these two orders of reality are in incommunicable levels. In essence, he claims that the orders of reality are radically distinct. Sartre also agrees with other theorists that the discovery of the body as being is real. However, he claims that the body is indeed a being for others. On this, he argues that people usually link their consciousness of objects on the body of others. Sartre gives an example of an inverted image seen from the lens to show that conscience can refuse to be bound by the laws of objects so that it conveys an upright image. In this regard, he posits that it is only possible to reflect on the nature of the body by first establishing the order of reflection. This should conform to the order of being which states that people cannot keep confusing the levels of ontology. Moreover, they must first look at the body as being-for-itself then as being-for-others. In addition, he argues that the two orders of the body are in both incommunicable and different levels so that they cannot be unified. In this regard, he continues that being-for-itself has to be wholly consciousness and wholly body. Moreover, it should be noted that the two (consciousness and body) cannot be unified. Similarly, he posits that being-for-others should also be wholly body and the body wholly psychic.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Relationship Between Body and Consciousness by Jean-Paul Sartre specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Being-for-itself: Facticity From the discussion above, Sartre rejects Descartes’s theory that knowing the soul is easy as compared to knowing the body. In essence, it rejects the observations in the â€Å"Cartesian cogito.† Sartre argues that the facts of the body are completely different from the facts of thought. To prove this, he says that facts of the body are accessible through divide providence while facts of thought can be accessed through reflection. That is, the facts of consciousness manifest in signs, which drives the body out of conscience. This makes it difficult to reunite the two since the body has become a body-of-others. He commends the idea that idealism was right in positing that the world is made out of relation. However, he believes that idealism is not entirely true because it was taken from Newtonian science, which conceived relation from another relation known as relation of reciprocity. That is, idealism succeeded only in making the point of ab solute objectivity. Moreover, Absolute objectivity made it possible for the world to exist without people thereby nullifying its effect. He therefore claims that the body is in the order of for-itself. In this regard, the body must be defined with the world. He therefore concludes that the body is one’s motivation without being its foundation. Sartre agrees with Plato on the fact that the body individualizes one’s soul. However, he does not agree with some theorists that it was made because of a demiurge. Moreover, he faults Plato in his belief that soul can be separated from the body at death. That is, he believes that one’s soul cannot detach itself from individualization because soul is the body as far as Sartre is concerned. To prove this, he gives an example of a sense, which he believes cannot be given before or after the sensible object.Advertising Looking for book review on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More He also commends Bachelard for reproaching phenomenology for inadequacy in coefficient of adversity. However, he faults him partly on the fact that instrumentality is primary. Moreover, he claims that one’s body extends through the tool that it utilizes. In this regard, he joins action and sensation as one. Moreover, he states that the body is a conscious structure of its own consciousness. Sartre believes that body organs give the body as it is acted upon as opposed to giving as it acts. Since he believes that the appearance of the body is not capable of giving rise to new complications, he concludes by stating that the body is one’s facticity of being. Moreover, since on one aspect the body appears as being for itself, on the other aspect it appears as an object, which is visible in one’s body organs. This shows that in accordance with the former level, the body has no physiology but on the latter level, it has physiology due to the presence of organs. In esse nce, Jean-Paul Sartre believes that the body is being-for-itself as well as being an object. In accordance with the former, he claims that the body has several aspects while one lives. One of the aspects includes consciousness, in which he considers the body as being a matter being-for-itself. The second aspect is perception. In this regard, he argues that when people perceive other bodies, they do so in a special manner. This kind of perception is completely different from the perceptions of lifeless things. Thirdly, Sartre believes that one can perceive his/her own body under particular circumstances. One therefore sees himself/herself as an object even without involvement of other people (being-in-itself). He utilizes numerous examples and arguments from theorists such as Plato, and Bachelard, among others to prove his arguments. Moreover, he draws information from many sources with an in depth analysis of information for the audience. It can be said the Sartre tries to define th e body and consciousness. Moreover, he tries to relate them with a view to establishing a common description and cognition of both. This is quite difficult considering the complexities involved. However, it should be noted that he rightly rejects theories that suggest that understanding the soul is easy as compared to understanding the body. Conclusion Jean-Paul Sartre tries to define the human body. He also tries to define consciousness. In both cases, he agrees that human body can be defined in different levels. For instance, he defines it as a being-for-itself and as an object. In the process, he disputes many theories including those posited by Plato, Descartes, and Bachelard, among others. However, it is important to note that he does not dispute their theories entirely but borrows from them to support his theories. Nonetheless, his understanding of the body and soul is quite apprehensive given that he rejects almost all theories posited by others. Moreover, he claims that oneà ¢â‚¬â„¢s soul cannot be detached from his/her body even in death. This brings controversies especially with religious people who believe in the separation of soul from body as well as in their distinctiveness. In addition, his arguments are largely theoretical as well as philosophical. This makes it difficult to defend his theories. 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